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Q:

On an outline map of the world, plot the areas with which the Mughals had political and cultural relations.

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Q:

What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinent?

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Mughal emperors assumed many high-sounding titles such as Shahenshah (King of Kings), World-Seizer (title of Jahangir) and King of the World (title of Shah Jahan).
Chroniclers highlighted these titles to reiterate the claims of the emperors to uncontested territorial and political control.
Mughal policies towards neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan were shaped by attempt to control the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia.
A constant aim of Mughal policy focused on controlling strategic outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar.
Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals.
Relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was shaped by the concern to ensure free movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control.

Q:

What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility? How was their relationship with the emperor shaped?

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Nobility (corps of Mughal officers) was one important pillar of the Mughal state.
It was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups.
This ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the power of emperor.
Officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor.
In the court of Akbar, Turani and Iranian nobles were important officer corps.
He also established spiritual relationships with them and treated them as his disciples (murid).
From 1560 onwards, nobles of Indian origin, the Rajputs and the Indian Muslims (Shaikhzadas), entered the imperial service.
Rajput chief, Raja Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber, had married off his daughter to Akbar.
Following this matrimonial alliance, many members of Hindu castes in the imperial were promoted; for example, Akbar’s finance minister, Raja Todar Mal.
For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way of acquiring power, wealth and the highest possible reputation.
Emperor appointed mansab on the advice of the nobles.
Nobles were also stationed at the court (tainat-i rakab) as a reserve force to be deputed to a province or military campaign.

Q:

To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abu’l Fazl’s description of the taswir (Source 1)?

A:

Visual material presented in this chapter reflects Abu’l Fazl’s description of the taswir (drawing the likeness of anything).
Paintings produced by Mughal artists show the emperors and their court activities realistically.
Most of the images show lively court scenes and represent the emperors as serious rulers, always giving command to their subordinates.
Activities in Kitabkhana, dressing pattern of emperors, coronation of princes, wedding scene, cultural dances, battle scene and Mughal rulers as protectors of justice and peace are portrayed realistically.

Q:

Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of Mughal chronicles.

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Mughal chronicles attempted to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all subjects.
Chronicles also tried to convey to those who resisted the rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail.
Mughal rulers wanted their rule and other events to be recorded for future generation.
Authors of Mughal chronicles were invariably courtiers.
Their accounts focused on events related to the ruler, his family, the court and nobles, wars and administrative arrangements.
Titles of chronicles (Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama, Alamgir Nama) suggest that in the eyes of their authors, the history of the empire and the court was synonymous with that of the emperor.

Q:

Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire.

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In the Mughal household, a distinction was maintained between royal wives (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth.
Begams received a higher status and greater attention from their husbands.
Concubines (aghacha or the lesser agha) occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females.
They all received monthly allowances in cash and gifts according to their status.
Agha and the aghacha could rise to the position of a begam, depending on the husband’s will.
Apart from wives, there were numerous female slaves in the Mughal household.
Some of Mughal queens and princesses also controlled significant financial resources.
Control over resources enabled important Mughal women to commission buildings and gardens.

Q:

In what ways would the daily routine and special festivities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of power of the emperor?

A:

In the Mughal court, daily routine and special festivities conveyed a sense of power of the emperor.
In the court, rules for proper behaviour before the emperor and forms of salutation were strictly followed.
Emperor began his day at sunrise with prayers, and then appeared for Jharoka darshan on a small balcony.
Below Jharoka, a crowd of people (soldiers, merchants, craftspersons, peasants, women with sick children) waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor.
In the public hall of audience (diwan-i am), he conducted the primary business of his government.
In the diwan-i khas, he would hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters.
On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne (Id, Shab-i barat), the court was lit with perfumed candles and walls were decorated with colourful hangings which displayed power of ruler.

Q:

Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal court.

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All books in Mughal India were manuscripts (handwritten).
Centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana (library).
Kitabkhana was also a scriptorium, where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced.
Creation of a manuscript involved a number of people with different skills and tasks.
Paper makers prepared the folios of the manuscript, and scribes (calligraphers) copied the text.
Gilders illuminated the pages, and painters illustrated scenes from other texts.
Bookbinders gathered the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
The finished manuscript was treated as a precious object and a work of intellectual wealth and beauty.

Q:

Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of kingship.

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Court chroniclers drew upon many sources to show that the power of the Mughal kings came directly from God.
For example, they created a fable on the Mongol queen Alanqua. The legend narrates that she was impregnated by a ray of sunshine while resting in her tent.
Children she bore carried this Divine Light and passed it on from generation to generation.
Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-i izadi).
The idea propagated that emperor was the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
Many Mughal paintings produced on this legend left a lasting impression on the minds of viewers.
Mughal artists portray emperors wearing the halo, which they observed on European paintings of Christ and the Virgin Mary to symbolise the light of God.
Mughal chronicles described the emperor as the protector of peace and justice among different religious communities – Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims - lived.
Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule.
Ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented in administration through state policies, and Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs and Deccanis were given positions for their service and loyalty to the king.
Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract: the emperor protects the four essences of his subjects - life (jan), property (mal), honour (namus) and faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources.
Mughal symbols articulate the idea of justice as the highest virtue of Mughal monarchy.
For example, motif of the lion and the lamb peacefully nestling next to each other conveys the message that in Mughal Empire, both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.

Q:

Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces?

A:

Division of functions established at the centre reflected in the administration of the provinces (subas) also.
Ministers at the centre had their corresponding subordinates (diwan, bakhshi and sadr) of the subas.
Head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar). He reported directly to the emperor.
Subas were divided into sarkars and placed under the control of faujdars (commandants).
Faujdars deployed their contingents of heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts.
Local administration was looked after at the level of the pargana (sub-district) by three semi-hereditary officers, the qanungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and the qazi.